The following simple program, which uses many different and usual concepts in programming, is based on "The early development of Programming Languages" by Donald E. Knuth and Luis Trabb Pardo, published in "A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century" edited by N. Metropolis, J. Howlett and Gian-Carlo Cota, Academic Press, New York, 1980, pp. 197-273. They gave an example in Algol 60 and translated into some very old languages such as Zuse's Plankalkül, Goldstine's Flow diagrams, Mauchly's Short Code, Burks' Intermediate PL, Rutishauser's Klammerausdrücke, Bohm's Formules, Hopper's A-2, Laning and Zierler's Algebraic interpreter, Backus' FORTRAN 0 and Brooker's AUTOCODE.
Klammerausdrücke is a German expression, we keep the German expression also in the Russian and English versions. A direct English translation is "bracket expression". FORTRAN 0 was really not called FORTRAN 0, it is just the very first version of Fortran.
The program is given here in Pascal, C and five variants of Fortran. The purpose of this is to show how Fortran has been developed from a cryptical, almost machine-dependent language, into a modern structured high-level programming language.
The final example shows the program in the new programming language F.
program tpk(input,output); (* Pascal program for Unix *) var i : integer; y : real; a : array [0..10] of real; function f (t : real) : real; begin f := sqrt(abs(t)) + 5*t*t*t end; begin for i := 0 to 10 do read(a[i]); for i := 10 downto 0 do begin y := f(a[i]); if y > 400 then writeln(i,' TOO LARGE') else writeln(i,y); end end.
This program contains variables of the data types integer and floating-point numbers,
and a vector of floating-point numbers. It also contains internal mathematical functions
and a function written by the user, both forward and backward loops, a conditional
statement and output of both floating-point numbers and characters.
Please note that exponentiation is not included in the Pascal language, therefore t^3 has
to be written t*t*t.
# include <stdio.h> # include <math.h> /* Program TPK in ANSI C */ double f (double t); main() { int i; double y; double a[11]; for ( i = 0; i <= 10; ++i) scanf("%lf", &a[i]); for ( i = 10; i >= 0; i = i -1 ) { y = f(a[i]); if ( y > 400 ) {printf("%d",i); printf(" TOO LARGE\n");} else {printf("%d",i); printf("%lf",y); printf("\n");} } return 0; } /* Function */ double f (double t) { double temp; temp = sqrt(fabs(t)) + 5*pow(t,3); return temp; }
The language C had the peculiar property that function calls were normally done in double precision, I have therefore written the whole program in double precision. This is not really necessary, because nowadays you can also use the single precision in most realizations. The exponentiation can be done here with the internal function pow.
Officially the first Fortran version to be spelled Fortran is Fortran 90, all previous versions should be FORTRAN with upper case. We do not follow that style, except just a little below. A common hand written spelling in the 1960's was FĜRTRAN. IBM recommended to put a slash / on the letter O in Fortran programs in order to distinguish it from the digit 0, but IBM recommended the opposite convention for Algol 60.
The Fortran inventor John Backus in New Mexico, 1976
DIMENSION A(11) READ A 2 DO 3,8,11 J=1,11 3 I=11-J Y=SQRT(ABS(A(I+1)))+5*A(I+1)**3 IF (400>=Y) 8,4 4 PRINT I,999. GOTO 2 8 PRINT I,Y 11 STOP
Please note the elegant treatment of the input of the vector A and that the symbol > (greater than) was available at the beginning of the Fortran development. Output of text was not available, therefore 999 was used here to mark too big numbers. The DO-loop was less elegant, the digits give starting line and the final line for the loop and where the execution should be transferred when the loop is terminated. The conditional statement is also not very user-friendly. Exponentiation is being done with **.
C THE TPK ALGORITHM C FORTRAN I STYLE FUNF(T)=SQRTF(ABSF(T))+5.0*T**3 DIMENSION A(11) 1 FORMAT(6F12.4) READ 1,A DO 10 J=1,11 I=11-J Y=FUNF(A(I+1)) IF(400.0-Y)4,8,8 4 PRINT 5,I 5 FORMAT(I10,10H TOO LARGE) GOTO 10 8 PRINT 9,I,Y 9 FORMAT(I10,F12.7) 10 CONTINUE STOP 52525
This was the first programming language with comments. The statement function is used and the backward loop has to be simulated, since a backward loop (negative index) was not permitted, and neither was index zero. The conditional statement is the arithmetical one, with jumps to three different positions depending on whether the arithmetic expression is less than zero, equal to zero or greater than zero. All function names have to end with an F. It is possible to print character strings if you can give the number of characters which will be output (10H in the case when ten characters are to be outputted). Structured layout had not yet been invented.
C THE TPK ALGORITHM C FORTRAN IV STYLE DIMENSION A(11) FUN(T) = SQRT(ABS(T)) + 5.)*T**3 READ (5,1) A 1 FORMAT(5F10.2) DO 10 J = 1, 11 I = 11 - J Y = FUN(A(I+1)) IF (400.0-Y) 4, 8, 8 4 WRITE (6,5) I 5 FORMAT(I10, 10H TOO LARGE) GO TO 10 8 WRITE(6,9) I, Y FORMAT(I10, F12.6) 10 CONTINUE STOP END
Also here a statement function is being used and the backward loop is still simulated. The structured layout has been used. The notation Fortran 66 started to be used in 1978, previously it was just called Standard FORTRAN or the IBM-notation FORTRAN IV was used also by other vendors.
PROGRAM TPK C THE TPK ALGORITHM C FORTRAN 77 STYLE REAL A(0:10) READ (5,*) A DO 10 I = 10, 0, -1 Y = FUN(A(I)) IF ( Y . LT. 400) THEN WRITE(6,9) I,Y 9 FORMAT(I10. F12.6) ELSE WRITE (6,5) I 5 FORMAT(I10,' TOO LARGE') ENDIF 10 CONTINUE END REAL FUNCTION FUN(T) REAL T FUN = SQRT(ABS(T)) + 5.0*T**3 END
Also here a statement function ought be used, but is was not popular at that time, and therefore an external function was being used instead. The backward loop no longer has to be simulated and the conditional statement can be given in a more natural way. Structured layout is now the normal case. The character string can be given within apostrophes so that you no longer have to count manually the number of characters in the character string. The statement END in the main program is also being used for the execution so that STOP is no longer required. Also the explicit RETURN in the function FUN is now optional.
PROGRAM TPK ! The TPK Algorithm ! Fortran 90 style IMPLICIT NONE INTEGER :: I REAL :: Y REAL, DIMENSION(0:10) :: A READ (*,*) A DO I = 10, 0, -1 ! Backwards Y = FUN(A(I)) IF ( Y < 400.0 ) THEN WRITE(*,*) I, Y ELSE WRITE(*,*) I, ' Too large' END IF END DO CONTAINS ! Local function FUNCTION FUN(T) REAL :: FUN REAL, INTENT(IN) :: T FUN = SQRT(ABS(T)) + 5.0*T**3 END FUNCTION FUN END PROGRAM TPK
Instead of an external function a local function is now used. The backward loop has not to be simulated. The conditional statement can be given in a more natural way and the symbol < (less than) has returned from Fortran 0. The specifications have a new appearance. Structured layout is used always and all statement numbers have been removed. The character string is given within apostrophes and the standard formats and standard units are used. Comments can be given on the same line as the statement, and comments are now indicated by an exclamation mark ! Implicit specification can (and should) be avoided.
This example is not changed in Fortran 95!
module Functions public :: fun contains function fun(t) result (r) real, intent(in) :: t real :: r r = sqrt(abs(t)) + 5.0*t**3 end function fun end module Functions program TPK ! The TPK Algorithm ! F style use Functions integer :: i real :: y real, dimension(0:10) :: a read *, a do i = 10, 0, -1 ! Backwards y = fun(a(i)) if ( y < 400.0 ) then print *, i, y else print *, i, " Too large" end if end do end program TPK
The new language F has been developed as a possible replacement of Pascal at the teaching of programming, but at the same it is a pure subset of Fortran 90 and Fortran 95.
A free F compiler for Linux is now available.
Keywords are reserved words and are required to be lower case letters, other identifiers may be mixed. Functions and subroutines are only permitted via modules. By default all variables have to be declared (the statement IMPLICIT NONE is therefore implicit, and was previously not permitted explicitly, it is however now optional). When available, the compiler switch -u is therefore very useful if you run an F program with a Fortran 90 compiler.
This example is a first attempt at writing in F!